Alan Turing

Alan Turing

Born 23 June 1912

London, England

Died 7 June 1954 (aged 41)

Wilmslow, Cheshire, England

Residence United Kingdom

Nationality British

Ethnicity Anglo-Saxon

Fields Mathematician, Logician, cryptanalyst

Institutions University of Manchester

National Physical Laboratory

University of Cambridge

Alma mater University of Cambridge

Princeton University

Doctoral advisor Alonzo Church

Doctoral

students Robin Gandy

Known for Halting Problem

Turing machine

Cryptanalysis of the Enigma

Automatic Computing Engine

Turing Award

Turing Test

Notable awards Officer of the Order of the British

Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS

(pronounced /��t(j)��)r��/) (23 June 1912 – 7

June 1954) was a British computer scientist,

mathematician, logician and cryptanalyst.

Turing is often considered to be the father of

modern computer science. He provided an

influential formalisation of the concept of the

algorithm and computation with the Turing

machine. Of his role in the modern computer,

Time Magazine in naming Turing one of the 100

most influential people of the 20th century,

states: "The fact remains that everyone who

taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a

word-processing program, is working on an

incarnation of a Turing machine." [1]

With the Turing test, meanwhile, he made a

significant and characteristically provocative

contribution to the debate regarding artificial

intelligence: whether it will ever be possible to

say that a machine is conscious and can think.

He later worked at the National Physical

Laboratory, creating one of the first designs for

a stored-program computer, the ACE, although

it was never actually built in its full form. In

1948, he moved to the University of

Manchester to work on the Manchester Mark

1, then emerging as one of the world's earliest

true computers.

During the Second World War, Turing worked

at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking

centre, and was for a time head of Hut 8, the

section responsible for German naval

cryptanalysis. He devised a number of

techniques for breaking German ciphers,

including the method of the bombe, an

electromechanical machine that could find

settings for the Enigma machine.

Near the end of his life Turing became

interested in chemistry. He wrote a paper on

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Empire

Fellow of the Royal Society

interested in chemistry. He wrote a paper on

the chemical basis of morphogenesis[2] and he

predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as

the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, which

were first observed in the 1960s.

Turing was homosexual, living in an era when homosexuality was still both illegal and officially considered a

mental illness. Subsequent to his being outed, he was criminally prosecuted, which essentially ended his

career. He died not long after in ambiguous circumstances.

Contents

1 Childhood and youth

2 University and his work on computability

3 Cryptanalysis

3.1 Turing–Welchman bombe

3.2 Hut 8 and Naval Enigma

4 Early computers and the Turing Test

5 Pattern formation and mathematical biology

6 Chemical castration

7 Death

8 Posthumous recognition

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links

12.1 Papers

Childhood and youth

Turing was conceived in Chhatrapur, Orissa, India.[3] His father, Julius Mathison Turing, was a member of

the Indian Civil Service. Julius and wife Sara (née Stoney; 1881 – 1976, daughter of Edward Waller Stoney,

chief engineer of the Madras Railways) wanted Alan to be brought up in England, so they returned to Maida

Vale,[4] London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside

of the building, now the Colonnade Hotel.[5][6] He had an elder brother, John. His father's civil service

commission was still active, and during Turing's childhood years his parents travelled between Guildford,

England and India, leaving their two sons to stay with friends in Hastings in England.[7] Very early in life,

Turing showed signs of the genius he was to display more prominently later.[8]

His parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a day school, at the age of six. The headmistress recognised his

talent early on, as did many of his subsequent educators. In 1926, at the age of 14, he went on to Sherborne

School, a famous and expensive public school in Dorset. His first day of term coincided with the General

Strike in Britain, but so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied

more than 60 miles (97 km) from Southampton to school, stopping overnight at an inn.[9]

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Turing's natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn

him respect with some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of

education placed more emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to

his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two schools. If he is to stay at

public school, he must aim at becomingeducated. If he is to be solely a

Scientific Specialist, he is wasting his time at a public school".[10]

Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he

loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having even studied

elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert

Einstein's work; not only did he grasp it, but he extrapolated Einstein's

questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was

never made explicit.[11]

Turing's hopes and ambitions at school were raised by the close friendship he developed with a slightly older

fellow student, Christopher Morcom, who was Turing's first love interest. Morcom died suddenly only a few

weeks into their last term at Sherborne, from complications of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after drinking

infected cow's milk as a boy.[12] Turing's religious faith was shattered and he became an atheist. He adopted

the conviction that all phenomena, including the workings of the human brain, must be materialistic.[13]

University and his work on computability

Turing's unwillingness to work as hard on his classical studies as on science and mathematics meant failure to

win a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, and he went on to the college of his second choice, King's

College, Cambridge. He was an undergraduate there from 1931 to 1934, graduating with a distinguished

degree, and in 1935 was elected a fellow at King's on the strength of a dissertation on the central limit

theorem.

In his momentous paper "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem"[14]

(submitted on 28 May 1936), Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and

computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with what are now called Turing

machines, formal and simple devices. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing

any conceivable mathematical problem if it were representable as an algorithm, even if no actual Turing

machine would be likely to have practical applications, being much slower than practically realisable

alternatives.

Turing machines are to this day the central object of study in theory of computation. He went on to prove

that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing

machines is undecidable: it is not possible to decide, in general, algorithmically whether a given Turing

machine will ever halt. While his proof was published subsequent to Alonzo Church's equivalent proof in

respect to his lambda calculus, Turing's work is considerably more accessible and intuitive. It was also novel

in its notion of a 'Universal (Turing) Machine', the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any

other machine. The paper also introduces the notion of definable numbers.

From September 1936 to July 1938 he spent most of his time at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton

University, studying under Alonzo Church. As well as his pure mathematical work, he studied cryptology and

also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier.[15] In June 1938 he obtained his

Ph.D. from Princeton; his dissertation introduced the notion of relative computing, where Turing machines are

The computer room at King's

is now named after Turing,

who became a student there in

1931 and a Fellow in 1935

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augmented with so-called oracles, allowing a study of problems that cannot be solved by a Turing machine.

Back in Cambridge, he attended lectures by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics.[16]

The two argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein arguing that mathematics

does not discover any absolute truths but rather invents them.[17] He also started to work part-time with the

Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS).

Cryptanalysis

During the Second World War, Turing was a main participant in the

efforts at Bletchley Park to break German ciphers. Building on

cryptanalysis work carried out in Poland by Marian Rejewski, Jerzy

Ró��ycki and Henryk Zygalski from Cipher Bureau before the war, he

contributed several insights into breaking both the Enigma machine and

the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (a Teletype cipher attachment codenamed "Tunny"

by the British), and was, for a time, head of Hut 8, the section responsible

for reading German naval signals.

Since September 1938, Turing had been working part-time for the

Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS), the British code

breaking organisation. He worked on the problem of the German Enigma

machine, and collaborated with Dilly Knox, a senior GCCS

codebreaker.[18] On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to

Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GCCS.[19]

Turing–Welchman bombe

Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park,[19] Turing had designed an

electromechanical machine which could help break Enigma faster than

bomba from 1932, the bombe, named after and building upon the original

Polish-designed bomba. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by

mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the primary tools, and

the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-protected message

traffic.

Professor Jack Good, cryptanalyst working at the time with Turing at

Bletchley Park, later said: "Turing's most important contribution, I think,

was of part of the design of the bombe, the cryptanalytic machine. He had the idea that you could use, in

effect, a theorem in logic which sounds to the untrained ear rather absurd; namely that from a contradiction,

you can deduce everything."[20]

The bombe searched for possibly correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor

settings, etc.), and used a suitable "crib": a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the

rotors (which had of the order of 1019 states, or 1022 for the U-boat Enigmas which eventually had four

rotors, compared to the usual Enigma variant's three),[21] the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions

based on the crib, implemented electrically. The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred, and

ruled out that setting, moving onto the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be

discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. Turing's bombe was first installed on 18 March

Two cottages in the stable

yard at Bletchley Park. Turing

worked here from 1939 –

1940 until he moved to Hut 8

Replica of a bombe machine

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discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. Turing's bombe was first installed on 18 March

1940.[22] Over two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war.[23]

Hut 8 and Naval Enigma

In December 1940, Turing solved the naval Enigma indicator system, which was more mathematically

complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. Turing also invented a Bayesian statistical

technique termed "Banburismus" to assist in breaking Naval Enigma. Banburismus could rule out certain

orders of the Enigma rotors, reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes.

In the spring of 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 co-worker Joan Clarke, although the engagement

was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer.

In July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed Turingismus or Turingery for use against the Lorenz cipher

used in the Germans' new Geheimschreiber machine ("secret writer") which was one of those codenamed

"Fish". He also introduced the Fish team to Tommy Flowers who under the guidance of Max Newman, went

on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which

replaced simpler prior machines (including the "Heath Robinson") and whose superior speed allowed the

brute-force decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the daily-changing cyphers.[24] A frequent

misconception is that Turing was a key figure in the design of Colossus; this was not the case.[25]

While working at Bletchley, Turing, a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the 40 kilometres to

London when he was needed for high-level meetings.[26]

Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with U.S. Navy cryptanalysts on Naval

Enigma and bombe construction in Washington, and assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure

speech devices. He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had

officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been de facto head for some time

— Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section. Turing became a general consultant for

cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.

In the latter part of the war he moved to work at Hanslope Park, where he further developed his knowledge

of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bailey. Together they undertook the design and

construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed Delilah.[27] It was intended for

different applications, lacking capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and in any case,

Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though Turing demonstrated it to officials by

encrypting/decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not adopted for use.

In 1945, Turing was awarded the OBE for his wartime services, but his work remained secret for many

years. A biography published by the Royal Society shortly after his death recorded:

Three remarkable papers written just before the war, on three diverse mathematical subjects, show the

quality of the work that might have been produced if he had settled down to work on some big problem

at that critical time. For his work at the Foreign Office he was awarded the OBE.

—[28]

Early computers and the Turing Test

From 1945 to 1947 he was at the National Physical Laboratory, where he worked on the design of the ACE

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(Automatic Computing Engine). He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed

design of a stored-program computer.[29] Although ACE was a feasible design, the secrecy surrounding the

wartime work at Bletchley Park led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947

he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was built in his

absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950.

In 1948 he was appointed Reader in the Mathematics Department at Manchester. In 1949 he became

deputy director of the computing laboratory at the University of Manchester, and worked on software for

one of the earliest true computers — the Manchester Mark 1. During this time he continued to do more

abstract work, and in "Computing machinery and intelligence" (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the

problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an experiment now known as the Turing test, an attempt to

define a standard for a machine to be called "intelligent". The idea was that a computer could be said to

"think" if it could fool an interrogator into thinking that the conversation was with a human. In the paper,

Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better rather to

produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. This

approach is adopted by the Texai.org project.[30]

In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writing a

chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. In 1952, lacking a computer powerful enough to execute

the program, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move.

The game was recorded;[31] the program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said that it

won a game against Champernowne's wife.

Pattern formation and mathematical biology

Turing worked from 1952 until his death in 1954 on mathematical biology, specifically morphogenesis. He

published one paper on the subject called "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in 1952, putting forth the

Turing hypothesis of pattern formation.[32] His central interest in the field was understanding Fibonacci

phyllotaxis, the existence of Fibonacci numbers in plant structures. He used reaction–diffusion equations

which are now central to the field of pattern formation. Later papers went unpublished until 1992 when

Collected Works of A.M. Turing was published.

Chemical castration

Homosexual acts were illegal in the United Kingdom[5] and regarded as a mental illness and subject to

criminal sanctions. In 1952, Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old recent acquaintance of Turing's,[33] helped an

accomplice to break into Turing's house, and Turing reported the crime to the police. As a result of the police

investigation, Turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray, and a crime having been identified and

settled, Turing and Murray were charged with gross indecency under Section 11 of the Criminal Law

Amendment Act 1885. Turing was unrepentant and was convicted of the same crime Oscar Wilde had been

convicted of more than fifty years before.[34]

Turing was given a choice between imprisonment and probation, conditional on his undergoing hormonal

treatment designed to reduce libido. To avoid jail, he accepted chemical castration via estrogen hormone

injections[35] which lasted for a year. His conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented

him from continuing consultancy for GCHQ on cryptographic matters. At the time, there was acute public

anxiety about spies and homosexual entrapment by Soviet agents, possibly due to the recent exposure of the

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first two members of the Cambridge Five, Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean, as KGB double agents. Turing

was never accused of espionage but, as with all who had worked at Bletchley Park, could not discuss his

war work.

Death

On 8 June 1954, his cleaner found him dead; the previous day, he had died of cyanide poisoning, apparently

from a cyanide-laced apple he left half-eaten beside his bed. The apple itself was never tested for

contamination with cyanide, but a post-mortem established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning.

Most believe that his death was intentional, and the death was ruled a suicide. His mother, however,

strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals.

Biographer Andrew Hodges suggests that Turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite

deliberately, to give his mother some plausible deniability.[36] Others suggest that Turing was re-enacting a

scene from 'Snow White', his favourite fairy tale.[37] Because Turing's homosexuality would have been

perceived as a security risk, the possibility of assassination has also been suggested.[38] His remains were

cremated at Woking crematorium on 12 June 1954.

Posthumous recognition

Since 1966, the Turing Award has been given annually by the Association for Computing Machinery to a

person for technical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the computing

world's equivalent to the Nobel Prize.[39]

Various tributes to Turing have been made in Manchester, the city where he worked towards the end of his

life. In 1994 a stretch of the A6010 road (the Manchester city intermediate ring road) was named Alan

Turing Way. A bridge carrying this road was widened, and carries the name 'Alan Turing Bridge'.

He is cited as a hero by American novelist Thomas Pynchon. The novel 'Gravity's Rainbow' was, allegedly,

in part inspired by Turing.

A statue of Turing was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001. It is in

Sackville Park, between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth

Street and the Canal Street 'gay village'. A celebration of Turing's life and

achievements arranged by the British Logic Colloquium and the British Society

for the History of Mathematics was held on 5 June 2004 at the University of

Manchester; the Alan Turing Institute was initiated in the university that summer.

The building housing the School of Mathematics, the Photon Science Institute

and the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics is named the Alan Turing Building

and was opened in July 2007.

On 23 June 1998, on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, Andrew

Hodges, his biographer, unveiled an official English Heritage Blue Plaque at his

birthplace and childhood home in Warrington Crescent, London, now the

Colonnade hotel.[40][41] To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, a memorial

plaque was unveiled on 7 June 2004 at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow, south Manchester.

For his achievements in computing, various universities have honoured

him. On 28 October 2004 a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by

Alan Turing memorial

statue in Sackville Park

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him. On 28 October 2004 a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by

John W Mills was unveiled at the University of Surrey in Guildford.[42]

The statue marks the 50th anniversary of Turing's death. It portrays him

carrying his books across the campus. Turing Road in the University's

Research Park predates this.

A building in the School of Technology at Oxford Brookes University is

called the Turing Building.

The Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico and Los Andes University in

Bogotá, Colombia, both have computer laboratories named after Turing. The University of Texas at Austin

has an honours computer science programme named the Turing Scholars. Istanbul Bilgi University organises

an annual conference on the theory of computation called Turing Days.[43] The computer room in King's

College, Cambridge is named the "Turing Room" after him. Carnegie Mellon University has a granite bench,

situated in The Hornbostel Mall, with the name "A. M. Turing" carved across the top, "Read" down the left

leg, and "Write" down the other. The Boston GLBT pride organization named Turing their 2006 Honorary

Grand Marshal.[44]

On 13 March 2000, St Vincent & The Grenadines issued a set of stamps to celebrate the greatest

achievements of the twentieth century, one of which carries a recognisable portrait of Turing against a

background of repeated 0s and 1s, and is captioned '1937: Alan Turing's theory of digital computing'.

A 1.5-ton, life-size statue of Turing was unveiled on 19 June 2007 at Bletchley Park. Built from

approximately half a million pieces of Welsh slate, it was sculpted by Stephen Kettle, having been

commissioned by the late American billionaire Sidney Frank.[45]

The Turing Relay[46] is a six-stage relay race on riverside footpaths from Ely to Cambridge and back. These

paths were used for running by Turing while at Cambridge; his marathon best time was 2 hours, 46 minutes.

The marathon world best time in the early 1940s was in the range of 2 hours, 25 minutes.

Experimental music duo Matmos, whose members are a homosexual couple, released a limited edition EP in

2006 entitled For Alan Turing.

See also

Unorganized machine

Good–Turing frequency estimation

Philosophy of information

Turing degree

Turing switch

References

1. ^ http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html

2. ^ A.M. Turing, "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis", Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society

of London, series B, volume 237, pages 37–72, 1952.

3. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 5

4. ^ "London Blue Plaques". English-Heritage.org.uk. http://www.englishheritage.

org.uk/server/show/nav.001002006005/chooseLetter/T. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.

Plaque marking Turing's home

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5. ^a b Hodges, Andrew (1983). Alan Turing: The Enigma. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 5. ISBN 0-671-

49207-1.

6. ^ "The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook". http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/scrapbook/memorial.html.

Retrieved on 2006-09-26.

7. ^ "Hastings Blue Plaque Trail".

http://www.hastingshandbook.co.uk/Archive/HHMar08/FMar08_AlanTuring.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-08-

10.

8. ^ Jones, G. James (2001-12-11). "Alan Turing - Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1". System Toolbox.

http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3. Retrieved on 2007-07-27.

9. ^ Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1985). Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern.

Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-04566-9. OCLC 230812136.

10. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 26

11. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 34

12. ^ ** Teuscher, Christof (ed.) (2004). Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker. Springer-Verlag.

ISBN 3-540-20020-7. OCLC 53434737 62339998.

13. ^ Paul Gray, "Alan Turing," Time Magazine's Most Important People of the Century, p.2 [1]

(http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html)

14. ^ Turing, A.M. (1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem",

Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2 42: 230–65, 1937 (and Turing, A.M. (1937), "On

Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction", Proceedings of the

London Mathematical Society, 2 43: 544–6)

15. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 138

16. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 152

17. ^ Hodges, 1983, pp. 153-154

18. ^ Jack Copeland, "Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age", p. 352 in Action This Day, 2001

19. ^ a b Copeland, 2006 p. 378

20. ^ "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003.

21. ^ Professor Jack Good in "The Men Who Cracked Enigma", 2003: with his caveat: "if my memory is

correct"

22. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 191.

23. ^ Copeland, Jack; Diane Proudfoot (May 2004). "Alan Turing, Codebreaker and Computer Pioneer".

http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/codebreaker.html. Retrieved on

2007-07-27.

24. ^ Copeland, 2006, p. 72.

25. ^ Copeland, 2006, pp. 382-383.

26. ^ Bodyguard of Lies , by Anthony Cave Brown, 1975.

27. ^ Hodges, 1983, p. 270

28. ^ Newman, M. H. A. (1955). Alan Mathison Turing. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society,

1955, Volume 1. The Royal Society..

29. ^ Copeland, 2006, p. 108.

30. ^ Bootstrap Dialog: A Conversational English Text Parsing and Generation System, in Artificial General

Intelligence Conference Proceedings, Arlington, Virgina, USA, (2009) (http://texai.org/papers/bootstrapdialog-

a-conversational-english-parsing-and-generation-system.pdf)

31. ^ Alan Turing vs Alick Glennie (1952) "Turing Test." (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?

gid=1356927)

32. ^ "Control Mechanism For Biological Pattern Formation Decoded" in ScienceDaily (Nov. 30, 2006)

(http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061128093244.htm)

33. ^ cf. Hodges, pp. 449–455

34. ^ Leavitt, David The Man Who Knew Too Much, p. 268, W. W. Norton & Co., 2006 ISBN 0-393-05236-2

35. ^ Turing, Alan (1912–1954) (http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/turing_a,2.html)

36. ^ Hodges, 1983, pp. 488-489.

37. ^ Ferris, Timothy. Seeing in the Dark. 2002. p. 250

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38. ^ Leavitt, David (2006). The man who knew too much: Alan Turing and the invention of the computer .

New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05236-2. OCLC 233002606 60742103.

39. ^ Steven Geringer (27 July 2007). "ACM'S Turing Award Prize Raised To $250,000". ACM press release.

http://www.acm.org/press-room/news-releases-2007/turingaward/. Retrieved on 2008-10-16.

40. ^ "Unveiling the official Blue Plaque on Alan Turing's Birthplace". http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/oration.html.

Retrieved on 2006-09-26.

41. ^ "About this Plaque - Alan Turing". http://www.blueplaque.com/detail.php?plaque_id=348. Retrieved on

2006-09-25.

42. ^ "The Earl of Wessex unveils statue of Alan Turing". http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/press/oct2004/281004a/.

Retrieved on 2007-02-10.

43. ^ "Turing Days @ ��stanbul Bilgi University". http://cs.bilgi.edu.tr/pages/turing_days/. Retrieved on 2007-02-

10.

44. ^ "Honorary Grand Marshal". http://www.bostonpride.org/honorarymarshal.php. Retrieved on 2007-02-10.

45. ^ Bletchley Park Unveils Statue Commemorating Alan Turing

(http://www.bletchleypark.org.uk/news/docview.rhtm/454075/article.html) , Bletchley Park press release,

20 June 2007]

46. ^ Turing Trail Relay (http://www.turingrelay.co.uk/)

Further reading

Agar, Jon (2002). The Government Machine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-

01202-2

Beniger, James (1986). The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information

Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-16986-7

Bodanis, David (2005). Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World . New York:

Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-307-33598-4. OCLC 61684223.

Campbell-Kelly, Martin (ed.) (1994). Passages in the Life of a Philosopher . London: William Pickering.

ISBN 0-8135-2066-5

Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and Aspray, William (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine.

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معرفی دانشمندان

Alan Turing