Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921

Born 14 March 1879

Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German

Empire

Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)

Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA

Citizenship Württemberg/Germany (1879–96)

Switzerland (1901–55)

Austria (1911–12)

Germany (1914–33)

United States (1940–55)

Ethnicity Ashkenazi Jewish

Fields Physics

Institutions Swiss Patent Office (Berne)

University of Zurich

German Karl-Ferdinands-Universität, Prague

ETH Zurich

Prussian Academy of Sciences

Kaiser Wilhelm Institute

University of Leiden

Institute for Advanced Study

Alma mater ETH Zurich

University of Zurich

Doctoral advisor Alfred Kleiner

Other

academic advisors Heinrich Friedrich Weber

Notable students Ernst G. Straus

Nathan Rosen

Known for General relativity

Special relativity

Photoelectric effect

Brownian motion

Mass-energy equivalence

Einstein field equations

Unified Field Theory

Bose–Einstein statistics

Notable awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)

Copley Medal (1925)

Max Planck Medal (1929)

Person of the Century

Religious stance See main text

Signature

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Albert Einstein (German:

��alb��t �� ta�� n ; English: IPA: /��ælb��t (-

��t) ��nsta��n/) (14 March 1879 – 18 April

1955) was a German-born theoretical

physicist. He is best known for his theory

of relativity and specifically mass–energy

equivalence, expressed by the equation

E = mc2. Einstein received the 1921

Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to

Theoretical Physics, and especially for his

discovery of the law of the photoelectric

effect."[1]

Einstein's many contributions to physics

include:

Special theory of relativity, which

reconciled mechanics with

electromagnetism

General theory of relativity, a new

theory of gravitation which added

the principle of equivalence to the

principle of relativity

Founding of relativistic cosmology

with a cosmological constant

The first post-Newtonian

expansions for the perihelion

advance of planet Mercury and

frame-dragging

The deflection of light by gravity

and gravitational lensing

An explanation for capillary action

The first fluctuation dissipation

theorem which explained the

Brownian movement of molecules

The photon theory and waveparticle

duality from the

thermodynamic properties of light

The quantum theory of atomic

motion in solids

Zero point energy

The semiclassical version of the

Schrodinger equation

Relations for atomic transition

probabilities which predicted

stimulated emission

The quantum theory of a

monatomic gas which predicted

Bose-Einstein condensation

The EPR paradox

A program for a unified field theory

by the geometrization of physics.

Einstein published over 300 scientific

works and over 150 non-scientific

works.[2][3] In 1999 Time magazine

named him the "Person of the Century",

and according to Einstein biographer Don

Howard, "to the scientifically literate and

the public at large, Einstein is synonymous

with genius."[4]:159

Contents

1 Youth and schooling

2 Patent office

3 Marriage and family life

4 Annus Mirabilis and special relativity

5 Light and general relativity

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11 Death

12 Legacy

13 Honors

14 Effect on popular culture

15 See also

16 Publications

17 References

18 Further reading

19 External links

Youth and schooling

Albert Einstein was born into a Jewish family in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire

on March 14, 1879. His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline

Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded a

company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, that manufactured electrical equipment based on

Direct current.

The Einsteins were not observant of Jewish religious practices, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary

school. Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school.[5][6]

When Einstein was five, his father showed him a pocket compass.

Einstein realized that there must be something in the space, previously

thought to be empty, that was moving the needle and later stated that this

experience made "a deep and lasting impression".[7] At his mother's

insistence, he took violin lessons starting at age six, and although he

disliked them and eventually quit, he later took great pleasure in Mozart's

violin sonatas. As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices

for fun, and began to show a talent for mathematics.

In 1889, family friend Max Talmud, a medical student,[8] introduced the

ten-year-old Einstein to key science, mathematics, and philosophy texts,

including Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid'sElements (Einstein

called it the "holy little geometry book").[8] From Euclid, Einstein began to

understand deductive reasoning, and by the age of twelve, he had learned

Euclidean geometry. Soon thereafter he began to investigate infinitesimal

calculus.

In his early teens, Einstein attended the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father

intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school

regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning.

In 1894, when Einstein was fifteen, his father's business failed, as DC had lost the War of Currents to

alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then,

after a few months, to Pavia. During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the

State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[9] Einstein had been left behind in Munich to finish high school, but in the

spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's

note.

Rather than completing high school, Einstein decided to apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische

Schule (later Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH)) in Zürich, Switzerland. Lacking a school

certificate, he was required to take an entrance examination, which he did not pass, although he got

exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[10] Einstein wrote that it was in that same year, at age 16, that

he first performed his famous thought experiment visualizing traveling alongside a beam of light (Einstein

1979).

The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, Switzerland to finish secondary school. While lodging with the family of

Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with the family's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married

Paul Winteler.)[11] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17 he graduated,

and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid

military service, to finally enroll in 1896 in the mathematics and physics program at the Polytechnic in Zurich.

Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

In the same year, Einstein's future wife, Mileva Mari��, also entered the Polytechnic to study mathematics and

physics, being the only woman in the group. During the next few years, Einstein and Mari��'s friendship

developed into romance. Einstein graduated in 1900 from the Polytechnic with a diploma in mathematics and

physics,[12] whereas Mari�� failed her final exams. That same year, Einstein's friend Michele Besso introduced

him to the work of Ernst Mach. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigiousAnnalen der

Physik on the capillary forces of a straw (Einstein 1901). He gained Swiss citizenship on 21 February

1901.[13]

Patent office

Following graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post. After almost two

years of searching, a former classmate's father helped him get a job in Berne, at

the Federal Office for Intellectual Property,[14] the patent office, as an assistant

Albert Einstein in 1893 (age

14), taken before the family

moved to Italy

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that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection

between space and time.[15][16]

Marriage and family life

Einstein and Mileva Mari�� had a daughter they called Lieserl, who was born in early 1902, probably in Novi

Sad.[18] Her fate is uncertain after 1903.

Einstein married Mileva on 6 January 1903, although his mother had objected to the match because she had

a prejudice against Serbs and thought Mari�� "too old" and "physically defective."[19] [20] Their relationship

was for a time a personal and intellectual partnership. In a letter to her, Einstein called Mari�� "a creature who

is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am."[21] There has been occasional debate about

whether Mari�� influenced Einstein's work, however, the overwhelming consensus amongst academic

historians of science is that she did not.[22][23][24] On 14 May 1904, Albert and Mileva's first son, Hans

Albert Einstein, was born in Berne, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich on 28 July

1910.

Albert and Mari�� divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. On 2 June of that year,

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein), who had nursed him through an illness. Elsa was Albert's first

cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. Together the Einsteins raised Margot and Ilse, Elsa's

daughters from her first marriage.[25] Their union produced no children.

Annus Mirabilis and special relativity

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Einstein had four

papers published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics

journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the Annus

Mirabilis Papers:

His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea

that certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect,

could be simply understood from the postulate that light interacts

with matter as discrete "packets" (quanta) of energy, an idea that

had been introduced by Max Planck in 1900 as a purely

mathematical manipulation, and which seemed to contradict

contemporary wave theories of light (Einstein 1905a).

His paper on Brownian motion explained the random movement of

very small objects as direct evidence of molecular action, thus

supporting the atomic theory. (Einstein 1905c)

His paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of special relativity,

which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion

required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the timespace

frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the

frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the

leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. (Einstein 1905d)

In his paper on mass–energy equivalence (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein

deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the twentieth century's most well

known equation:E = mc2.[26][27] This suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge

amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power. (Einstein 1905e)

All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievements—and hence 1905 is known as Einstein's

"Wonderful Year". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and

many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this work—such as the theory of light

quanta—remained controversial for years.[28][29]

At the age of 26, having studied under Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, Einstein was

awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled A New Determination of Molecular

Dimensions. (Einstein 1905b)

Light and general relativity

See also: History of general relativity and Relativity priority dispute

In 1906, the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner

Second Class, but he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became

a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[30] In 1910, he wrote an

expository paper that described the cumulative effect of light scattered by

individual molecules in the atmosphere, i.e., why the sky is blue.[31]

During 1909, Einstein published "Über die Entwicklung unserer

Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The

Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of

Radiation"), on the quantization of light. In this and in an earlier 1909

paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have welldefined

momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like

particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the term

Albert Einstein, 1905

One of the 1919 eclipse

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exploring the usefulness of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory.

Although for a while Einstein thought that there were problems with that approach, he later returned to it and

by late 1915 had published his general theory of relativity in the form that is still used today (Einstein 1915).

This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial

motion of other matter.

After many relocations, Mileva established a permanent home with the children in Zürich in 1914, just before

the start of World War I. Einstein continued on alone to Berlin, where he became a member of the Prussian

Academy of Sciences. As part of the arrangements for his new position, he also became a professor at the

Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause freeing him from most teaching obligations.

From 1914 to 1932 he was also director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics.[34]

During World War I, the speeches and writings of Central Powers scientists were available only to Central

Powers academics, for national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and

the United States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the Netherlands,

especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter of the Leiden University. After the

war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with the Leiden University, accepting a contract as an

Extraordinary Professor; he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture there between 1920 and 1930.[35]

In 1917, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated

emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser (Einstein 1917b). He also

published a paper introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant, into the general theory of relativity in

an attempt to model the behavior of the entire universe (Einstein 1917a).

1917 was the year astronomers began taking Einstein up on his 1911 challenge from Prague. The Mount

Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no gravitational

redshift.[36] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California, announced that they too had disproven

Einstein's prediction, although their findings were not published.[37]

However, in May 1919, a team led by British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have

confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a solar

eclipse in Sobral, northern Brazil, and Príncipe.[33] On 7 November 1919, leading British newspaper The

Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe –

Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[38] In an interview Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as the

"greatest feat of human thinking about nature";[39] fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was

"probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[40]

From this point on, the international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown. There have been later claims

that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed the experimental

uncertainty to be of about the same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and

that a 1962 British expedition concluded that the method was inherently unreliable,[38] the deflection of light

during a solar eclipse has been confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[41]

There was some resentment toward the newcomer Einstein's fame in the scientific community, notably among

some German physicists, who later started the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[42][43]

Nobel Prize

In 1922 Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[44] "for his

services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the

photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect:

"On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of

Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The

presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had]

been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has

astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present

time." (Einstein 1923)

It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money directly to his first

wife, Mileva Mari��, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However,

personal correspondence made public in 2006[45] shows that he invested much

of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Depression.

Einstein traveled to New York City in the United States for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked

where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an

examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in

all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results

(Einstein 1954).[46]

Unified field theory

Einstein's research after general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of attempts to generalize his

theory of gravitation to include new geometric structures which would explain electromagnetism. In 1950, he

described this approach "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized

Theory of Gravitation" (Einstein 1950). Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became

increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.

In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in

Einstein, 1921. Age 42.

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describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that

should appear at very low temperatures (Einstein 1924). It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate

was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at

the NIST-JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[47] Bose–Einstein statistics are now

used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of "bosons". Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen

in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[48]

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger an application of Max Planck's idea of treating energy levels for a

gas as a whole rather than for individual molecules, and Schrödinger applied this in a paper using the

Boltzmann distribution to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger

urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[49]

Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the

Manhattan Project and is credited with the discovery of the chain reaction, co-invented (and in 1930,

patented) the Einstein refrigerator, revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an

input.[50][51]

Bohr versus Einstein

See also: Bohr-Einstein debates

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory.

Einstein was unhappy with the "Copenhagen interpretation" of quantum theory

developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, wherein quantum phenomena

are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction

with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed,

lasting for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein

formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which

were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at

any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice." (Einstein 1969).[52]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's

intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the

issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the

theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR

paradox (Einstein 1935). The EPR experiment has since been performed, with

results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[53]

Einstein's disagreement with Bohr revolved around the idea of scientific determinism. For this reason the

repercussions of the Einstein-Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse as well.

Religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological

determinism, and whether or not he believed in a God. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I

believe in Spinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who

concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind."[54] In a 1950 letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein

stated that "My position concerning God is that of an agnostic. I am convinced that a vivid consciousness of

the primary importance of moral principles for the betterment and ennoblement of life does not need the idea

of a law-giver, especially a law-giver who works on the basis of reward and punishment."[55] Einstein also

stated: "I have repeatedly said that in my opinion the idea of a personal God is a childlike one. You may call

me an agnostic, but I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due

to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth." He is reported to

have said in a conversation with Hubertus, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, "In view of such

harmony in the cosmos which I, with my limited human mind, am able to recognize, there are yet people who

say there is no God. But what really makes me angry is that they quote me for the support of such views."[56]

Einstein clarified his religious views in a letter he wrote in response to those who claimed that he worshipped

a Judeo-Christian god: "It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is

being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal god and I have never denied this but have

expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for

the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it."[57] In his book The World as I See It, he

wrote: "A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the

profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most

elementary forms—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this

sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man."[58]

In a 1930New York Times article,[59] Einstein distinguished three styles which are usually intermixed in

actual religion. The first is motivated by fear and poor understanding of causality, and hence invents

supernatural beings. The second is social and moral, motivated by desire for love and support. Einstein noted

that both have an anthropomorphic concept of God. The third style, which Einstein deemed most mature, is

motivated by a deep sense of awe and mystery. He said, "The individual feels ... the sublimity and marvelous

order which reveal themselves in nature ... and he wants to experience the universe as a single significant

whole." Einstein saw science as an antagonist of the first two styles of religion, but as a partner of the third

Einstein and Niels Bohr.

Photo taken by Paul

Ehrenfest during their

1925 Leiden visit.

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significance of those super-personal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational

foundation ... In this sense religion is the age-old endeavour of mankind to become clearly and completely

conscious of these values and goals, and constantly to strengthen their effects." He argued that conflicts

between science and religion "have all sprung from fatal errors." "[E]ven though the realms of religion and

science in themselves are clearly marked off from each other" there are "strong reciprocal relationships and

dependencies ... science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind ... a legitimate conflict

between science and religion cannot exist." In Einstein's view, "neither the rule of human nor Divine Will exists

as an independent cause of natural events. To be sure, the doctrine of a personal God interfering with natural

events could never be refuted ... by science, for [it] can always take refuge in those domains in which

scientific knowledge has not yet been able to set foot." (Einstein 1940, pp. 605–607)

In a letter to Eric Gutkind in 1954 Einstein wrote:

I read a great deal in the last days of your book, and thank you very much for sending it to me. What

especially struck me about it was this. With regard to the factual attitude to life and to the human

community we have a great deal in common. ... The word God is for me nothing more than the

expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive

legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me)

change this. These subtilised interpretations are highly manifold according to their nature and have

almost nothing to do with the original text. For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an

incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with

whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. As far as

my experience goes, they are also no better than other human groups, although they are protected from

the worst cancers by a lack of power. Otherwise I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them. In general

I find it painful that you claim a privileged position and try to defend it by two walls of pride, an external

one as a man and an internal one as a Jew. As a man you claim, so to speak, a dispensation from

causality otherwise accepted, as a Jew the privilege of monotheism. But a limited causality is no longer

a causality at all, as our wonderful Spinoza recognized with all incision, probably as the first one. And

the animistic interpretations of the religions of nature are in principle not annulled by monopolisation.

With such walls we can only attain a certain self-deception, but our moral efforts are not furthered by

them. On the contrary. Now that I have quite openly stated our differences in intellectual convictions it

is still clear to me that we are quite close to each other in essential things, ie in our evaluations of

human behaviour. What separates us are only intellectual 'props' and 'rationalisation' in Freud's

language. Therefore I think that we would understand each other quite well if we talked about concrete

things. With friendly thanks and best wishes Yours, A. Einstein.

Einstein had previously explored this belief that man could not understand the nature of God when he gave an

interview to Time Magazine explaining:

I'm not an atheist. I don't think I can call myself a pantheist. The problem involved is too vast for our

limited minds. We are in the position of a little child entering a huge library filled with books in many

languages. The child knows someone must have written those books. It does not know how. It does not

understand the languages in which they are written. The child dimly suspects a mysterious order in the

arrangement of the books but doesn't know what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of even the

most intelligent human being toward God. We see the universe marvelously arranged and obeying

certain laws but only dimly understand these laws.

Politics

With increasing public demands, his involvement in political, humanitarian,

and academic projects in various countries, and his new acquaintances

with scholars and political figures from around the world, Einstein was

less able to achieve the productive isolation that he needed in order to

work.[64] Due to his fame and genius, Einstein found himself called on to

give conclusive judgments on matters that had nothing to do with

theoretical physics or mathematics. He was not timid, and he was aware

of the world around him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would make

world events fade away. His very visible position allowed him to speak

and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people of

conscience could only flee to the underground or keep doubts about

developments within their own movements to themselves for fear of

internecine fighting. Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement, tried

to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel and braved anti-communist

politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress

of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[65]

Zionism

Einstein was a socialist Zionist who supported the creation of a Jewish national homeland in the British

mandate of Palestine.[66] In 1931, The Macmillan Company published About Zionism: Speeches and

Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein.[67] Querido, an Amsterdam publishing house, collected eleven of

Einstein's essays into a 1933 book entitledMein Weltbild, translated to English as The World as I See It;

Einstein's foreword dedicates the collection "to the Jews of Germany".[68] In the face of Germany's rising

militarism, Einstein wrote and spoke for peace.[69][70]

Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the

British-supervised British Mandate of Palestine into independent Arab

and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said:

"My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a

Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no

Einstein and Indian poet and

Nobel laureate Rabindranath

Tagore during their widely

publicized 14 July 1930

conversation

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for the Deir Yassin massacre (Einstein et al. 1948).

Einstein served on the Board of Governors of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In his Will of 1950,

Einstein bequeathed literary rights to his writings to The Hebrew University, where many of his original

documents are held in the Albert Einstein Archives.[73]

When President Chaim Weizmann died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he

declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings." [74] He

wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I

cannot accept it. "[75]

Anti-Nazism

In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. One of the first actions of Hitler's

administration was the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which removed Jews and

politically suspect government employees (including university professors) from their jobs, unless they had

demonstrated their loyalty to Germany by serving in World War I. In response to this growing threat Einstein

had prudently traveled to the U.S. in December 1932. For several years he had been wintering at the

California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California,[76] and also was a guest lecturer at Abraham

Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.[77]

The Einsteins bought a house in Princeton (where Elsa died in 1936), and Einstein remained an integral

contributor to the Institute for Advanced Study until his death in 1955. During the 1930s and into World War

II, Einstein wrote affidavits recommending United States visas for a huge number of European Jews who

were trying to flee persecution. He raised money for Zionist organizations and was, in part, responsible for

the formation, in 1933, of the International Rescue Committee.[75][78]

Meanwhile, in Germany, a campaign to eliminate Einstein's work from the

German lexicon as unacceptable "Jewish physics" (Jüdische Physik) was

led by Nobel laureates Philipp Lenard and Johannes Stark.Deutsche

Physik activists published pamphlets and even textbooks denigrating

Einstein, and instructors who taught his theories were blacklisted—

including Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg, who had debated quantum

probability with Bohr and Einstein. Philipp Lenard claimed that the mass–

energy equivalence formula needed to be credited to Friedrich Hasenöhrl

to make it an Aryan creation.[79][80] An anti-Einstein organization was

formed, and a man who was convicted of composing a plot to kill

Einstein was fined a mere six dollars.[81]

Einstein became a citizen of the United States in 1940 and remained there

the rest of his life, although he retained his Swiss citizenship.[82]

Atomic bomb

Concerned scientists, many of them refugees from European anti-

Semitism in the U.S., recognized the danger of German scientists

developing an atomic bomb based on the newly discovered phenomena

of nuclear fission. In 1939, the Hungarian émigré Leó Szilárd, having

failed to arouse U.S. government interest on his own, worked with

Einstein to write a letter to U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt,

which Einstein signed, urging U.S. development of such a weapon.[83] In

August 1939, Roosevelt received the Einstein-Szilárd letter and

authorized secret research into the harnessing of nuclear fission for

military purposes.[84]

By 1942 this effort had become the Manhattan Project, the largest secret scientific endeavor undertaken up

to that time. By late 1945, the U.S. had developed operational nuclear weapons, and used them on the

Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Einstein himself did not play a role in the development of the

atomic bomb other than signing the letter. He did help the United States Navy with some unrelated

theoretical questions it was working on during the war.[85]

According to Linus Pauling, Einstein later expressed regret about his letter to Roosevelt.[86] In 1947, Einstein

wrote an article for The Atlantic Monthly arguing that the United States should not try to pursue an atomic

monopoly, and instead should equip the United Nations with nuclear weapons for the sole purpose of

maintaining deterrence.[87]

Cold War era

When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had

sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was

to become the Soviet bloc. After World War II, enmity between the former

allies became a very serious issue for people with international résumés. To

make things worse, during the first days of McCarthyism Einstein was writing

about a single world government; it was at this time that he wrote, "I do not

know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will

use in the Fourth—rocks!"[88] In a 1949Monthly Review article entitled "Why

Socialism?"[89] Albert Einstein described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of

evil to be overcome, as the "predatory phase of human development" (Einstein

Einstein receiving his

certificate of American

citizenship from Judge Phillip

Forman in 1940

Einstein-Szilárd letter

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the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to

create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the

grounds of the former Middlesex University in Waltham, Massachusetts.

Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both

Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply

conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American

ideal of an educated democracy."[92] The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted

to appoint British economist Harold Laski as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was

"a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."[92] Einstein

withdrew his support and barred the use of his name.[93] The university opened in 1948 as Brandeis

University. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined.[92]

Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the

U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a file on Einstein[94] that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the

documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objecting to his immigration, while

others asked the FBI to protect him.[95]

Although Einstein had long been sympathetic to the notion of vegetarianism, it was only near the start of 1954

that he adopted a strict vegetarian diet.[96]

Death

On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal

aortic aneurysm, which had previously been diagnosed and reinforced.[97] He took a draft of a speech he

was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him

to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[98] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next

morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. Einstein's remains were cremated and

his ashes were scattered.[99][100]

Before the cremation, Princeton Hospital pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for

preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to

discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[101]

Legacy

While travelling, Einstein had written daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters, Margot and Ilse, and

the letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the

personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after

her death (she died in 1986[102]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told

the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[103]

The United States' National Academy of Sciences commissioned theAlbert Einstein Memorial, a

monumental bronze and marble sculpture by Robert Berks, dedicated in 1979 at its Washington, D.C.

campus adjacent to the National Mall.

Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis,

successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for

the Hebrew University.[104][105]

Honors

See also: List of things named after Albert Einstein

In 1999, Albert Einstein was named "Person of the Century" byTime

magazine,[106][107] a Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired

person of the 20th century[108] and according to The 100: A Ranking of

the Most Influential Persons in History, Einstein is "the greatest scientist of

the twentieth century and one of the supreme intellects of all time."[109]

A partial list of his memorials:

The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005

the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th

anniversary of the publication of the Annus Mirabilis Papers.[110]

The Albert Einstein Institute

TheAlbert Einstein Memorial by Robert Berks

A unit used in photochemistry, the einstein

The chemical element 99, einsteinium

The asteroid 2001 Einstein

The Albert Einstein Award

The Albert Einstein Peace Prize

In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple.[111]

Effect on popular culture

Einstein's house in Princeton,

Max Planck presents Albert

Einstein with the Max-Planck

medal of the German Physical

Society, June 28, 1929 in

Berlin.

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See also

Annus Mirabilis Papers

Heinrich Burkhardt

Hermann Einstein

EPR paradox

History of general relativity

History of gravitational theory

History of special relativity

Introduction to special relativity

Pauline Koch

List of coupled cousins

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein

List of things named after Einstein

Mass–energy equivalence (also known as E=mc2)

Photoelectric effect

Relativity priority dispute

Sticky bead argument

Summation convention

The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)

Theory of everything

German inventors and discoverers

Publications

The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his

publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.

Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the

Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4: 513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306

Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of

Light", Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148,

http://lorentz.phl.jhu.edu/AnnusMirabilis/AeReserveArticles/eins_lq.pdf. This annus mirabilis paper on the

photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18 March.

Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30

April and submitted 20 July.

Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small

Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549–560. This annus mirabilis paper on

Brownian motion was received 11 May.

Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921.

This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30 June.

Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der

Physik 18: 639–641. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27 September.

Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)",

Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847

Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological

Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften

Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)",

Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128

Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity", Nobel

Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company,

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.pdf, retrieved on 2007-03-25

Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal

gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch—Mathematische

Klasse: 261–267. First of a series of papers on this topic.

Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen

Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223–224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in

the courses of rivers.

Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of

Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–780,

doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777

Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature 146: 605, doi:10.1038/146605a0

Einstein, Albert, et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors", New York Times,

http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html

Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review,

http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm, retrieved on 2006-01-16

Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American CLXXXII (4): 13–

Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions , New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7

Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955,

Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung

Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-

6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.

Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos

Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol 1–10. Princeton

University Press. Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of

the Einstein Papers Project (http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html) and on the Princeton University

Press Einstein Page (http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/)

References

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pp. 8–9.

8. ^a b Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student," Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard

University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF

(http://www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf) : about Max Talmud visited on Thursdays

for six years.

9. ^ Mehra, Jagdish. "Albert Einstein's first paper" (PDF).

http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-03-04.

10. ^ Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein, London: Faber and Faber,

p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2

11. ^ Highfield (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)

12. ^ "A Brief Biography of Albert Einstein". April 2005. http://www.ssqq.com/archive/alberteinstein.htm.

Retrieved on 2007-06-11.

13. ^ "Einstein's nationalities at einstein-website.de". http://www.einsteinwebsite.

de/z_information/variousthings.html#national. Retrieved on 4 October 2006.

14. ^ Now the "Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property". http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm. Retrieved

on 16 October 2006.. See also their "FAQ about Einstein and the Institute".

http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1094.shtm.

15. ^a b Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time"Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–

389.

16. ^a b Galison, Peter (2003). Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time. New York: W.W. Norton.

ISBN 0393020010.

17. ^ E.g. Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford

University Press, p. 17, ISBN 0-19-520438-7

18. ^ This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Mari��. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from

Einstein to Mari�� (who was staying with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4

February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).

19. ^ Highfield (1993, pp. 54,58): "she did not seem to care that Mileva was not Jewish"

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http://www.pbs.org/ombudsman/2006/12/einsteins_wife_the_relative_motion_of_facts.html, retrieved on

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2007-02-23.

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Couples in the Sciences, H. M. Pycior et al. (ed)" (PDF).

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26. ^ Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in a Nutshell, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-55-380202-X

27. ^ Schwartz, J.; McGuinness, M. (1979), Einstein for Beginners , Pantheon Books, ISBN 0-39-450588-3

28. ^ On the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see

the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers,

1987), ISBN 9027724989.

29. ^ Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University

Press, pp. 382–386, ISBN 0-19-520438-7

30. ^ Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University

Press, p. 522, ISBN 0-19-520438-7

31. ^ Levenson, Thomas. "Einstein's Big Idea (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/) ." Public

Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on 25 February 2006.

32. ^ Einstein, Albert (1911). "On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light". Annalen der Physik 35:

898–908. doi:10.1002/andp.19113401005. (also in Collected Papers Vol. 3, document 23)

33. ^a b Crelinsten, Jeffrey. "Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity

(http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html) ." Princeton University Press. 2006. Retrieved on 13

March 2007. ISBN 9780691123103

34. ^ Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin." in Renn, Jürgen.

"Albert Einstein — Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen.

Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747

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2007-06-11.

36. ^ Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity , Princeton University Press,

pp. 103–108, ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3, http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/8165.html, retrieved on

2007-03-13

37. ^ Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity , Princeton University Press,

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38. ^a b Andrzej, Stasiak (2003). "Myths in science". EMBO reports 4 (3): 236.

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42. ^ Hentschel, Klaus and Ann M. (1996), Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources ,

Birkhaeuser Verlag, xxi, ISBN 3-76-435312-0

43. ^ For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006),

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44. ^ "Albert Einstein - Frequently Asked Questions". Nobelprize.org. 1955-04-18.

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-faq.html. Retrieved on 2009-01-07.

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Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 216.

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2007-05-21.

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62. ^ Ericson, Edward L. "The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion". The American

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64. ^ Clark, Ronald W. (1971), Einstein: The Life and Times , Avon, ISBN 0-380-44123-3

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Century.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-08-13.

109. ^ Hart, Michael H. (1978), The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Citadel Press,

p. 52, ISBN 0-8065-1350-0

110. ^ "World Year of Physics 2005". http://www.wyp2005.org/overview.html. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

111. ^ "Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle" (in German). http://www.walhalla-regensburg.de/deutsch/index.shtml.

Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

112. ^ The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69 Disguise (http://www.newyorker.com/search/query?

queryType=nonparsed&query=Einstein+&bylquery=Maloney&month1=01&day1=14&year1=1939&month2=01&day2=14&year2=1939&page=&sort=&submit.x=10&submit.y=5)

Further reading

Moring, Gary, "The complete idiot’s guide to understanding Einstein"

(http://books.google.com/books?

id=875TTxildJ0C&dq=idiots+guide+to+einstein&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=W9rxRk0Ukn&sig=gbJach7BrzngSiFjODx95k8e1DU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=, Indianapolis, IN : Alpha books : Macmillan USA, Inc., 2000 (2nd edition, 2004). ISBN

0028631803

Schweber, S. S., Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius, Harvard University Press,

2008, ISBN 978-0674028289.

External links

Einstein Page (http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/) from Princeton University Press, publisher of

Einstein's writings since 1921.

Albert Einstein (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/History/People/Einstein,_Albert/) at the Open

Directory Project

Einstein Archives Online (http://www.alberteinstein.info/)

"Emilio Segre Visual Archives: Albert Einstein" (http://photos.aip.org/exhibits/ein.jsp) , American

Institute of Physics

"The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive": Albert Einstein (http://www-history.mcs.standrews.

ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html) University of Saint Andrews, School of Mathematics and

Statistics (huge bibliography for further reading)

"Einstein's Big Idea" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/) Nova television documentary series

website, Public Broadcasting Service

Nobelprize.org: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921

(http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/index.html)

Mathematics Genealogy Project: Albert Einstein (http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?

id=53269) , Mathematics Genealogy Project (a service of the NDSU Department of Mathematics, in

association with the American Mathematical Society)

In Einstein's Shadow (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/ineinsteinsshadow.shtml) BBC Radio 4

series on Einstein's contributions to science

Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)

"A. Einstein: Image and Impact" (http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html) , on the American

Institute of Physics's "AIP Center for the History of Physics" site: biography, audio and full site as

downloadable PDF for classroom use

Einstein's Annus Mirabilis 1905 (http://lorentz.phl.jhu.edu/AnnusMirabilis/) - collection at Johns

Hopkins University

Videos

Archival footage of Einstein (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-1Z2wi2uSA)

Einstein in 1943 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpgXf5l_7dg&NR)

Einstein explains E=mc^2 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CC7Sg41Bp-U&feature=related)

Einstein's 1933 arrival in the US (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_lljToydDiA)

Footage of the 1927 Solvay conference (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8GZdZUouzBY)

Einstein talks about nuclear energy (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L36vOx-_FeU)

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Albert Einstein